Alcibiades Alcibiades was born in 450 BC to father Clinias and mother Deinomache.(1) In his youth Alcibiades was a student of Socrates, but later turned his intelligence and charm towards the political and military arenas. In the year 420, Alcibiades became a general for the Athenian army and took a major role in their quest to defeat Sparta. Alcibiades prepared to lead an Athenian fleet to Syracuse in 415, but during the final preparations a bust of Hermes was found vandalized. Alcibiades was implicated in the destruction of the bust, tainting his future leadership with suspicion. His enemies, led by Androcles sent him off towards Syracuse before Alcibiades was able to clear his name. While he was away he was condemned to death, but managed to escape on the trip home and eventually defect to Sparta. During his time in Sparta he gave them military advice against Athen and seduced King Agis II's wife. Alcibiades eventually returned to Athenian alliance and led great defeat over the Spartan fleets in Hellespont at Abydos (411) and Cyzicus (410). After these great defeats he returned to Athens. He continued to have political enemies that turned the people against him and he retired in Thrace in 407. In 404 he was murdered by the Spartans. Alcibiades was constantly switching alliances, politically and militarily, therefore creating many allies and enemies throughout his life.(2) As mentioned earlier, Alcibiades was a pupil of Socrates. They also served together at Potidaea where each protected each other at certain moments during the battle. Alcibiades and Socrates were declared lovers when Alcibiades was a young man. In Plato's Symposium, Alcibiades appears towards the end drunk and declaring his unrequited love for Socrates. Although this moment reveals Socrates' refusal of Alcibiades' seduction, Socrates freely declared his love for Alcibiades and the two did have a mutual love. Scholars are undecided whether or not the two were joined in physical love. The love between the two represents Socrates' teaching that true love comes from inner beauty as opposed to external beauty.(3) ((4)) Despite his history with Socrates, Alcibiades does not act upon Socrates' teachings, becoming an unreliable, self-serving person that proved to be an example during Socrates' trial. Because he was originally Socrates' pupil and then caused political and military chaos, Alcibiades was used against Socrates as an example of the destructive nature of Socrates' teachings. [Ellie Wendell]
Ariadne
Army of Lovers In Burton's The Anatomy of Love Melancholy, he refers to an army of lovers. Burton writes "And if it were possible to have an army consist of lovers…" [3.2.3,752]
Gorgidas' creation of the Sacred Theban Band turned this idea into an actual military group. Gorgidas was a general in Thebes, and, around 378, he created this fighting unit of 150 homosexual couples. Gorgidas originally spread these special troops throughout his army, but Pelopidas the next commander of the Theban army concentrated them all together as one group. The Sacred Band was the cornerstone of the Theban army that enabled the state to establish Theban hegemony in the Greek world from 371 to 362 BC. Thebes and Sparta fought for decades, and Thebes ultimately defeated Sparta at the battle of Leuctra in 371. Leuctra was Sparta's first defeat in an open field hoplite battle. The Sacred Theban Band could be created because Thebes was a particularly open state and homosexual relations in general throughout Greece were accepted. Plutarch recorded the information that we have about the Sacred Theban Band. He attributes the name of the group to a pledge of faithfulness that Boetian lovers made at Iolaus' tomb. Theban hegemony ended with the defeat at the battle of Mantinea in 362, and the Macedonians, led by Philip, overran conquered Thebes with their victory at the battle of Chaeronea in 338. The entire Sacred Theban Band was killed and a memorial was set up. The memorial was restored in 1902 and a picture is shown below. The Sacred Theban Band was a crucial part of the Theban army that was responsible for the states dominance over the Greek world in the 4th century BC.
Picture of Memorial: From "An Army of Lovers; the Sacred Band of
Thebes" [Michael Mazzotta] Astrolabe of Physics The astrolabe is only briefly mentioned in Burton, but it was an extremely important instrument used to keep track of the celestial bodies and also, find measurements for the altitude of the sun and other celestial bodies and latitude. The Muslims perfected the astrolabe sometime in 800 A.D. The Muslims made three types of astrolabes-spherical, linear, and flat. The flat is the most common. The astrolabe was introduced to Europe in the 12th century. It was used commonly until the 1650's. "An early simple astrolabe consisted of a disk of wood or metal with the circumference marked off in degrees. It was suspended by an attached ring. Pivoted at the center of the disk was a movable pointer called by Arab astronomers the alidade. By sighting with the alidade and taking readings of its position on the graduated circle, angular distances could be determined" (http://www.kol.org/astrolabe.htm#intro). [Molly McGlynn]
Avicenna (Ibn Sina)
Raised in a highly intellectual environment and blessed with an exceptional memory, Avicenna mastered Islamic law, medicine and metaphysics, and was accomplished in all branches of learning by the age of 21. After his father died, he was displaced from his home by a Turkish invasion and spent much of the rest of his life wandering, making his livelihood as a physician. At one point he became court physician under the Buyid prince (native dynasty 945-1055 A.D.) Shams ad-Dawlah, and was twice appointed vizier there. Political intrigues against him forced him into hiding, and he was even imprisoned at one point. He would spend most of his days in the court, and then the nights would be used for time with students, composing his writings and holding both philosophical and scientific discussions. After the death of the prince, Avicenna fled to Esfahan where he spent the last fourteen years of his life in relative peace. It was here that he managed to complete the bulk of his writing. He died from choleric and exhaustion whilst accompanying Ala ad-Dawlah on a campaign. Writings include: The Book of Healing (Kitab ash-shifa)
The Canon of Medicine (al-Qanun fi at-tibb)
Book of Directives and Remarks (Kitab al-isharat wa at-tanbihat)
Book of Salvation (Kitab an-najat)
The Arabic Language (Lisan al-arab)
Oriental Philosophy (al-hikmat al-mashriqiyah)
Both the Book of Healing and the Canon of Medicine were printed in Latin in the twelfth century, but the Book of Healing was only partially translated. When the Canon was published in English (again, only a partial translation), in the fifteenth century, over eighty editions were produced. They spread to many European cities, no doubt including the library of Oxford University, England, where Burton worked as librarian. The thought of Avicenna was a major influence on the period, and the Canon became respected on the same level as Hippocrates and Galen. His medicine, philosophy and theology lives today in much Islamic thought. In his voluminous writings, Ibn Sina [981-1037 CE] laid out the following rules for testing the effectiveness of a new drug or medication. These principles still form the basis of modern clinical drug trials.
Astronomy (Renaissance)
The Ptolemaic Model, which combined the cosmology of Aristotle with the astronomy of Ptolemy, had a universe divided into two main regions, the sublunary, which the earth occupied, which was composed of earth, air, water, and fire and the heavens, which was composed of aether and quintessence. The earth, being the heaviest body in the universe naturally was at the center, while the rest of the cosmos formed concentric circles around it with the moon closest, followed by Mercury, Venus, then the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and finally the fixed stars. While Ptolemy's explanations of planetary movements actually contradicted the idea of an unchanging universe composed of perfect spheres, the separation of cosmology and astronomy was such that Ptolemy's mathematics did not effect how the universe was believed to be ordered.
Burton, like many of his contemporaries would have known of the advances of Copernicus and Galileo, but was slow to discard the old geocentric system which had religious as well as scientific significance. Just as Harvard College for years after Galileo's death presented both astronomical models, so too did both of the systems coexist side by side in popular thought before the new model finally replaced the old. [Cheryl Thayer] Beauty (1), Natural versus Artificial Beauty
In Burton's work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, he discusses the difference between natural and artificial beauty. He begins by stating that although natural beauty is always appreciated, a woman can become more attractive to men through jewelry, make-up, clothing, etc. A man named John Lerius went to Brazil where he found women who spent their time publicly naked and exposed. John came to the conclusion that a woman dressed up in nice clothing is much more striking than a woman with no clothes on. In addition to what a woman can put on herself to make her more attractive, a woman can also attract men through her eyes, especially through "an adulterous eye." (p684) Smiling and laughing also make a woman more beautiful to a man because they make the man believe that these gestures are directed at them. Burton writes that a woman's goal is to deceive a man into falling in
love with her and marrying her. She does this by staying out of torch light
and candlelight, and by going out into public for the sole purpose of showing
herself off to men. Another allurement that attracts men is money. Burton
writes, "If she be rich, then she is fair, fine, absolute and perfect,
then they burn like fire, they love her dearly, like pig and pie, and are
ready to hang themselves if they may not have her." (p.693) Women are
also more attracted to men with money, and will go out of their way to woo
wealthy men into marriage. [Vicki Craig] Beauty (2), Power Women Hold Over Men
During the Renaissance beauty was perceived as power because of such diseases as Love-Melancholy. And even within such cases, the power belonged not to the men, but the women, for they were more beautiful than their companions. It has been seen throughout history that a man will do anything to please his love, in essence giving himself totally to her and granting her control of him. Such control allows for a woman to use her beauty as a means to captivate her companion (although it can also work vice versa, it is more much common to be seen in this perspective). Beauty is considered one of the greater causes of Love-Melancholy because it spawns undeniable lust from one who sees beauty and falls, infatuated with the object, deeply in love. The end result of such a situation is that one's fall into a state of Love-Melancholy over the object that he/she has come to recognize as such a beauty. [Dave Gonzalez]
Bedlam Hospital
Bright, Timothy (1551-1615) An English physician, his Treatise of Melancholie was the most well known book on the subject before Burton's work emerged. Published in 1586, it has many similarities to its successor; both books describe the causes as well as potential cures for melancholy. However, Burton's work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, is generally accepted as superior. It is more thorough, contains more examples, was written in a more compelling style, and offered an updating of old concepts and ideas. As a result, Bright's work was effectively superseded by Burton's. Bright is little remembered nowadays, although he managed to create a fairly secure legacy as an important contributor to modern shorthand writing. Burton himself seemed to recognize that Bright's work held little relevance for posterity. While he cites Bright often, it is generally done in an offhand manner, frequently in a listing of scholars subscribing to a certain idea. There are no groundbreaking contributions attributed to Bright; rather, Burton appears to be simply demonstrating that he is familiar with the work, as its chronological proximity made it impossible to ignore (Burton 121). [Dave Morrissey]
Campanella, Tommaso (1568-1639) Born in Southern Italy, this prodigy entered the Dominican religious order at the age of fourteen, where he received advanced instruction in philosophy and theology. However, the influence of several other writers/mentors caused his beliefs to shift away from the accepted ideals of the Church at an early age. He began actively supporting the theory that all knowledge is based on sensation and that intelligence is simply data stored and provided by the senses, as opposed to the accepted view that God was the source of all knowledge. In 1589, he became an adherent of a group that professed belief in magic and astrology. He was subsequently identified by the Inquisition as a heretic, limiting his freedom. Participation in an initiative to oust the Spanish from certain areas in Italy culminated in his arrest and thirty-year imprisonment in 1599. He eventually sought refuge in France after his release, and lived there until his death. Campanella wrote on a wide variety of subjects, including metaphysics, religion, and politics. His works, while generally compelling, were never regarded as the most enlightened of the time, and nowadays his work has little relevance in contemporary studies. His most enduring legacies are perhaps his basic treatment and exploration of nature as well as his early formulation of the communist state in his "City of the Sun" conception (http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/People/campanella.html and http://www.radicalacademy.com/philcampanella.htm). Burton cites Campanella at several different points in his work. In his conception of Utopia in the preface, Burton mentions Campanella's "City of the Sun" as an ideal that is ultimately impractical because it does not provide for a governmental and hierarchical elite (Burton 85). However, Burton respectfully cites Campanella on diverse matters related to the nature of the soul. Campanella believed that men have four souls, one of which a spiritual soul; the popular belief that the body of a corpse will bleed in the presence of the murderer is his proof in this respect (135). His work is also used to buttress Burton's claim that the soul is immortal and his suppositions regarding the force of imagination (144, 223). Campanella is not a particularly major figure in Burton's work; however the inclusion of such respected scholars clearly lent an authoritative tone to The Anatomy of Melancholy. It is also interesting that Burton chose to use the work of one who had so flagrantly run afoul of national customs. His inclusion is likely another instance of Burton's religious revolt against the Catholic church, a theme that is prevalent and often fascinating within the work. [Dave Morrissey]
Cannabis Indica "Cannabis hemp was the world's largest grown cash crop. It was used to make fabric, lighting oil, paper, incense, medicines, and food." Cannabis has been used since the beginning of mankind for all kinds of purposes, including medicinal and recreational. Hemp cloth containing cannabis residue was discovered dating back to 400 B.C. The Renaissance was no different than the rest of history, as marijuana was accepted medicinally as a remedy for lust, according to Burton (page 770) [Shannon Linn] Chaos In the beginning, Hesiod says, there was Chaos, vast and dark. Then appeared Gaea, the dep-breasted earth, and finally Eros, ' the love which softens hearts ', whose fructifying influence would thenceforth preside over the formation of beings an things. From Chaos were born Erebus and Night who, uniting, gave birth in their turn to Ether and Hemera, the day. On her part Gaea first bore Uranus, the sky crowned with stars, ' whom she made her equal in grandeur, so that he entirely covered her '. Then she created the high mountains and Pontus, ' the sterile sea ' with its harmonious waves... http://www.ancientgreece.com/mythology/mythology.htm In the beginning, there was the creation myth. Hesiod wrote his Theogeny, which gave the following myth, although there have been many variations throughout Greek mythology that either deny or confuse this version. Chaos was not quite a god, more of a shapeless mass, it seems - some sort of confused mass of elements. Chaos was the dark and silent gap from which all things came into existence. Chaos, it was, that generated the solid mass of Earth (Gaea), from which arose Heaven (Uranus). Together these two combined to engender the Titans, who were led by Chronus (Saturn). Chaos is also the origin for Tartarus (Abyss), Erebus (Darkness), Eros (Love), and Nyx (Night). Nyx subsequently produced the dark aspects of humans, such as sleep, dreams, war, famine, and death.
The modern meaning of chaos derives from something closer to Ovid's interpretation
of creation the Hesiod's. Ovid saw chaos more as the matter that needed
form, and therefore thought there was a maker who gave form to that chaos.
This meaning has also been applied in the Bible, in Genesis 1. Circulation of Blood In the Galenic system blood does not circulate. According to Galen, food moves through the stomach into the intestines. Chylus or chyle, the nutritive portion of food, is drawn off by the mesenteric veins and conveyed through the portal vein into the liver. As Burton states, blood is "made of the most temperate parts of the chylus in the liver, whose office is to nourish the whole body, to give it strength and colour, being dispersed by the veins through the every part of it" (1.1.2.3, 128). Blood is constantly produced in the liver. It contains the nutrients necessary for life. All veins originate from the liver and transport natural spirits, formed in the liver, and the nutritious venous blood to all parts of the body. Some venous blood and natural spirits are transported to the right ventricle of the heart. The pulmonary artery brings a portion of the venous blood and natural spirits to lungs. Instead of going to the lungs, some venous blood in the right ventricle is transported directly to the left ventricle. The heart, specifically the left ventricle, is the source of innate heat in the body. Heat must be transported from the left ventricle to all parts of the body. The lungs cool the heart, supply the left ventricle with air and exhale waste. Air combines with blood (some assert it combines with natural spirits as well) to form vital spirits in the hot left ventricle. The nature of the blood is transformed in the left ventricle. The venous blood in the left ventricle is heated and purified to become arterial blood. Arterial blood transfers heat and vital spirits from the heart to all parts of the body. All arteries originate from the left ventricle and convey the arterial blood and vital spirits throughout the body. Veins and arteries are part of two separate systems with separate functions. Each part of the body is sustained by an artery (providing heat and vital spirits) and a separate and discrete vein (providing nutrients and natural spirits). Other than in the left ventricle, where venous blood in transformed into arterial blood, the two forms of blood never come in contact with each other. The movement of blood in the arteries and veins is a slow ebb and flow. The ventricles of the heart are not envisioned to pump blood and thereby cause the arteries to dilate when the ventricles contract. Instead, the arteries dilate at the same time as the ventricles of the heart. The entire arterial system pulsates in unison. The movement of blood is attributed to the ability of all organs to attract and repel blood, not a pumping motion of the heart. [Kyle Viani]
Chiromancy In his discussion of stars as a cause of melancholy, Burton briefly addresses
its diagnosis through chiromancy:
Chiromancy, better known as palmistry, is the forecasting of one's future based upon the characteristics of the palm. "The left hand supposedly reflects inbred and the right hand acquired characteristics." This method of prediction focuses on the mounts of the palm, the lines on the mounts, as well as the lines that intersect throughout the palm. Each mount on the palm is named after a planet, and is related to specific details of the person's future and personality. "The mount of Jupiter denotes honor and a happy disposition; of Saturn, prudence and therefore success; of Apollo, appreciation of beauty; of Mercury, scientific, industrial, and commercial interests; of Mars, courage; of the Moon, a dreamy disposition; and of Venus, an amorous nature." In ancient times, chiromancy relied on these seven mounts on the hand, each of which corresponds to one of the seven planets known during that period. In addition to the mounts, there are four significant lines on the palm, symbolizing "life, intelligence, the heart or sensation, and personal fortune." Based upon the characteristics represented in each mount of the palm, one might think that melancholy should be correlated with that of Jupiter. In the passage above, and its surrounding context, Burton does not offer a reason why the Saturnian mount may be a representation of melancholy, but he does name several scholars who have made this assertion. See Palmistry.
The diagram at right includes names of several areas of the palm not mentioned
above. [David Fine] Chrysostom, St. John
Saint John Chrysostom was known for his great ability to give eloquent
and persuasive speeches. His name "Chrysostom" means "golden-mouthed"
and was given to John of Antioch because of his oratory gift. St. John Chrysostom
was born in 347 and gave up a career in law in order to become a priest.
He was known throughout the Christian world for his gift and eloquence in
public speaking. His popularity resulted in his election to the Patriarchate
of Constantinople, and in this position he spoke against the Empress Eudoxia
because of her excessive lifestyle. As a result of this, his enemies came
together, falsely accused John of treason, and plotted his exile. However,
John was so loved in general, that the news of his exile resulted in a great
protest and John was once again restored to the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
St. John gave a sermon about how much he disliked excited crowds, and his
enemies greatly exaggerated his sermon and brought about his permanent exile
from Constantinople. Some of his letters and treatises were written down
including the sermon which is heard at Easter Sunday services. [Vicki Craig] Copia Copia is a rhetorical figure that was used throughout the renaissance, which gained popularity through Erasmus's book, De duplici copia verborum ac rerun, "On the twofold abundance of expressions and ideas." This word comes from "Copia", the Roman goddess of wealth and plenty who carried around a cornucopia (horn of plenty). In Erasmus's book, he taught students how to express an abundant amount of ideas in an eloquent way by putting these ideas in different forms. The goal of this was for the students to learn how to articulate many thoughts in a variety of ways with eloquence and knowledge. An example of copia in Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy is:
Burton uses copia in his book in order to give the reader the impression
that he or she knows everything there is to know about the subject down
to the last detail, and also to impress the reader. [Vicki Craig] Cosmetics
Unfortunately, many of the make-up products of the time were harmful tot he health of those who used them and even in a few cases caused death. To achieve the pasty white skin tone that was desirable during the period, white lead was applied layer after layer. Compounds of mercury were used in rouge and as blemish removers. Hair dye of lead, sulphur, quicklime and water was mixed to create a color that matched that of Queen Elizabeth's natural tresses and later to make her wigs. Additionally, to combat the strong smells that permeated the castles, women were known to carry around perfume bottles at their supposedly delicate noses. [Shannon Linn] Cupid's Darts Cupid as a child and a young man:
Cupid is also known as Amor or Eros, and is said to be the son of Venus. He is seen by some to be a sort of sidekick to Venus, shooting both mortals and gods at her command. Those shot with his arrows will fall desperately in love with the first person they see. He was married to Psyche, and a very long version of their tragic story can be found here. It is said that Cupid had two types of arrows, those with tips of gold and those with tips of lead. The gold invoke love in those whose hearts are pierced. Those of lead cause aversion. Those who are truly in love, a most pure and honest love, cannot be harmed by his amorous darts. An amusing poem claiming that Cupid possessed arrows of 7 different colors, each for a different kind of love, shows a more humorous view on the classical myth, and can be found here. The entire mythology of Cupid and his family history can be found here. Many mythological stories portray him as a mischievous child, rather than the angelic figure we are familiar with. Cupid is often portrayed as a naked, winged infant, often blindfolded, carrying a bow and arrows. He is constantly referred to in Burton, probably because of this duality he possesses of good and bad, and love and hate. [Cristina Santos]
According to Burton (p. 176), King James I wrote Daemonologie in 1599. King James did have very strong viewpoints on the matter of witches. However, according to a different source, (http://the.wicca.net/wicca.html), it was published in 1579. This difference could be due to another edition or such. In 1590, a group of witches called the North Berwick Coven attempted the sinking of King James's ship. In 1591, King James (of Scotland) has the North Berwick Coven burned alive. In 1603, King James (of England) declares witchcraft to be a capital offense. Supposedly, King James became skeptical of witchcraft near the end of his reign but he let the declaration of 1603 stand. [Molly McGlynn] (http://www.witchwisdom.com/witchhunters2.html).
 Many Renaissance writers used similar tactics to Burton when discussing the credentials of dancing. The middle ground seemed to take precedence. While there were many forms of dancing which were considered immoral, most notably those which were "lasciuiouse, and corrupted the myndes of them that daunsed, and provoked sinne…" Thomas Elyot Many dances, which were originally based on certain forms of idolatry, were strictly looked down upon. On the other hand, the aristocracy considered dances, which brought out the finer qualities in a couple, a necessary means for distinguishing the nobility. Dancing was also considered an acceptable form of exercise as long as it wasn't taking precedence over any intellectual or moral commitments. [Becky Griffin]
Democritus has been commonly known as "The Laughing Philosopher," and it is said that he never appeared in public with out expressing his contempt of human follies while laughing. It is said that he blinded himself to increase the powers of his mind. He carried his theories into practical philosophy, laying down that happiness consisted in an even temperament. According to his exposition of the atomic theory of matter, all things are composed of minute, invisible, indestructible particles of pure matter (atoma,"indivisibles"), which move about eternally in infinite empty space (History of Psychology). Democritus studied madness and melancholy both for a self-cure and to teach others how to cure themselves. Burton gives himself the name of Democritus Jr. as a "substitute for Democritus, to revive again, prosecute and finish" his work. (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)[Cristina Santos] Dido and Aeneas The story of Dido and Aeneas is clearly broken down into short summaries and brief synopses featuring pictures on this site. Dido was originally a Phoenician princess named Elissa. She left Tyre for Africa and once there, set about the founding of Carthage. Aeneas, a Trojan, was on his ship when a sudden storm arose. He lands and Venus, his mother, in disguise tells him of Dido. Aeneas is taken to the grounds where Carthage is being built. Dido meets Aeneas and his men and throws a huge feast for the Trojans. Juno and Venus conspire together and switch Aeneas's son with Cupid. Cupid causes Dido to fall madly in love with Aeneas. Dido decides that she must have Aeneas after he tells his story and the building of Carthage slows due to Dido's passion and preoccupation with Aeneas. The two decide to go hunting and while on their trip, Juno and Venus cause a storm. Dido and Aeneas are forced to take refuge in a cave and make love. They return to Carthage and Mercury appears to Aeneas to tell him that he is destined to be the founder of Rome. Plans for the city are already being created. Aeneas knows he must leave and tells Dido who becomes agitated. Dido is distraught and considers her options. She decides that she must die. Upon seeing Aeneas's fleet sailing away she vows to be his enemy. Dido stabs herself with a sword given to her by Aeneas. She dies after Jupiter has Iris free Dido's soul. This story is the uniting factor for the first four books of Virgil's Aeneid. It can be read in its entirity on this site. This story has also been the subject of many paintings and an opera composed in 1689 by Henry Purcell. This opera can be read here. This story is referred to many times throughout Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy. One of these references is on page 754. [Molly McGlynn]
Epilepsy
Burton does not seem to have a clearer picture of epilepsy. At one point
he considers it a cause of melancholy (1.2.5.1, 376), and at another a consequence
(1.4.1, 430- 431). Meanwhile, he also says that it could be inherited,
even though not regularly, as it tends to skip a generation (1.2.1.6, 212).
No more is he certain of its cure-he deems it incurable (2.4.1.1, 210)
only to claim later that it could be cured by peony (2.5.1.6, 250). The sympathy between melancholy and epilepsy could be explained in terms that they both were considered peculiar causes and at the same time attributes of genius. For ages, thinkers have been searching for what makes someone a genius, what makes him stand out from everyone else. After some search, they settled on two attributes of genius: melancholy, which seemed to afflict all great men, and epilepsy, common to some great figures, like Oracle of Delphi and Julius Caesar, as well as to prophetic holy fools. [Marina Ryabtseva]
Eyes & the Soul, Renaissance Conceptions
During the Renaissance in England, it was said and believed that "the
eyes are the windows of our souls, by which as so many channels, all dishonest
concupiscence gets into our hearts." Every critical detail that can
be perceived of a person's eyes, can and will be a reflection of that person's
soul. The perceived reflection of that person's soul will show any signs
of ailment that may currently be affecting that person and can aid in a
proper diagnosis and cure of the disease of Love-Melancholy, by physicians/divines.
By these healers it became known that the eyes are the principle cause of
Love-Melancholy. A hollowness and/or pale color of the eyes are both symptoms
of the disease caused by the feebleness of the natural heat and the dissipation
of the spirits that abound in the eyes, or else from the malignity of the
humors, or finally from atrophy. It was also believed that the eyes send
forth rays that carry certain spiritual vapors with them, making it possible
for people to infect each other with Melancholy simply by sharing eye contact.
The eyes were seen as link between the soul and the body and were therefore
believed to be one of the key features of the body. Poets spoke of lover's
eyes as either sickly or heavenly, one displaying the signs of Love-Melancholy
and the other of Truelove respectively. [Dave Gonzalez] Fallopius Gabriello Fallopio was the most illustrious of 16th century Italian anatomists, who contributed to the discovery and naming of many significant ear and reproductive organs. He was a teacher of anatomy at the University of Ferrara where he did exhaustive observations on the dissection of the human cadaver, known as Observationes Anatomiae (1561). His extensive studies earned him the respect of his colleagues, most notably the famed Renaissance anatomist Andreas Vesalius. Fallopius discovered the tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus (now known as the Fallopian tubes), as well as mnay other major nerves of the head and face. He explained the semicircular canals of the inner ear, which are essential in maintaining bodily equilibrium and named: the vagina, placenta, clitoris, palate and cochlea. He joined Vesalius on a "vigorous assault" of the Greek anatomist, Galen, whose principles and findins had ruled medicine up until that time. The two modernized and further developed medicine of the Renaissance. [Shannon Linn] www.britannica.com Ficinus Marsilius Ficinus (Marsilio Ficino b.1433 d. 1499), was a philosopher, physician, priest, and philologist. He was first educated as a physician (being the son of Cosmo de Medici's physician), took orders in the Church in 1477, but was known principally for introducing Platonic philosophy to Europe. He became president of the Platonic Academy and touted Socrates and Plato as fore-runners to Christ. He felt that Plato alone provided the philosophic basis for Christianity and for God, showing God and man as attached on the "great chain of existence," and that it was the job of the Neo-Platonists, who lived after the coming of Christ, to fully express that which Plato had laid the foundation for. On occasion he suffered from melancholy, upon which he used his knowledge of medicine in an attempt to find relief. Besides his many translations of Plato, he wrote the Book of Life, which was composed of three parts. The first contained the "life of reason", the second the "prolongation of life and the preservation of health", and the third on "the speeding up of life by mystical and astrological medicine" (Burton Index 1009). Burton uses Ficinus again and again as an example of someone who has written extensively on melancholy, and cites him among long lists of other knowledgeable men on the subject of melancholy, ranging from the "Digression of Spirits" (1.2.1.2) to "Stars a Cause" (1.2.1.4) to "Diet a Cause" (1.2.2.1). Ficinus can be viewed as one of the first true Renaissance men in the sense that he easily reconciled Christianity and Classicism, took the old and the new and combined them, and dabbled in ancient arts and new sciences. He serves as a predecessor to Burton, applying his knowledge of the human body to discovering a cure for his own melancholy and in the process writing extensively on the subject. [Cheryl Thayer] Gesner, Conrad
Gesner is also known as the "father of bibliography", as he created the first large bibliography. He began compiling Biblioteca Universalis in 1545. In the form of an index, it had around 1800 authors and their works, with Gesner's comments about the works. He never completed this bibliography. (compilation of information from sites 2-5). In Robert Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, he references Gesner numerous times, implicating Gesner as a great and credible thinker. As indicated by the index, on 1011 he is mentioned on pages, 13, 18, 19, 410, 448, 456, 464, 544, 564, 595, 630. "In winter not a bird is in Muscovy to be found, but at the spring
in an instant the woods and hedges are full of them, saith Herbastein: how
comes it to pass? Do they sleep in winter like Gesner's Alpine mice; or
do they lie hid (as Olaus affirms) in the bottom of lakes and river, holding
their breath?"
Hero and Leander In classical mythology, Hero was a priestess of Aphrodite who resided in Sestus, a town on the European shore of the Hellespont. She was both exceedingly beautiful and chaste, honoring Aphrodite by sacrifices rather than in pursuing love. At a feast in Sestos in honor of Aphrodite and Adonis, Leander, a young man from Abydus, a town on the Asian shore directly across from Sestus, saw Hero and the two fell in love. Wishing to conceal their love from her parents who would not let her marry a foreigner, Leander swam nightly across the Hellespont, using as his guide the light which Hero placed at the top of her tower. When winter came he could not stop himself from seeing her and so continued to brave the dangerous waters. On the night of a terrible storm, the wind blew out the light in the tower and, unable to find his way, Leander drowned. When his body washed ashore the next morning, Hero, seeing it, flung herself from her tower and died on the rocks beside his body. The story was recounted by Musaeus Grammaticus and Publius Ovidius Naso and served as the basis for Christopher Marlowe's epic poem Hero And Leander. Marlowe's version, as well as Musaeus', is used frequently as an example in Burton's The Anatomy of Melancholy in his section on Love-Melancholy, giving Leander's beauty as a cause for the sea caressing him as he swam (3.2.2.2, 670), and Hero's beautiful eyes as the principal cause of Leander's love for her (3.2.2.2, 680). The courtship "dance" of Hero and Leander, his suing of her for her love, her coy protestations and inevitable acquiescence, is chronicled by Burton as an example of the progression of "burning lust" (3.2.2.4, 703-4). Burton uses this story as a frequent example in his text principally because it was so widely and well-known by his contemporaries. The myth has captured the imagination for centuries, and the swimming of the Hellespont was long considered a heroic and superhuman feat until attempted and achieved by Lord Byron the 19th century. [Cheryl Thayer] Incubi/Succubi The legend goes that an Incubus is a demon of male form that seeks out sleeping women with whom have sexual intercourse, often slipping through an open window. The myth originates from medieval Europe, where it was rumored that a union between an Incubus and a mortal was supposed to result in the birth of witches, demons and deformed offspring. The universally known magician, "Merlin" was fabled to be fathered by an Incubus. The word "Incubus" is derived from the Latin noun incubus, -i (m.) meaning "nightmare" and the Latin verb incubare (to lie upon, weigh upon, brood). The same definition is given for succubus, except that the demon appears in the female form, haunting men. [Shannon Linn] www.britannica.com Galen (129-199)?
Galen established himself like Burton by using Hippocrates, Aristotle, and other notable scientist as recourses and support of his work. He then went on to write about how plants have the voluntary abilities where as humans have sensory abilities that are controlled by the soul. Galen used dissections of animals to form hypotheses of how the human body worked. He was the first to dispute the fact that the veins contained air, that they instead contained blood. He thought that the blood carried nutrients where the veins were active while the nutrients and blood were inactive inferring a kind of stationary quality to the blood. William Harvey, the discoverer of circulation of blood, was very surprised that Galen did not come to the same conclusion. His study of Galen's work led him to believe that he was very close to the actual function of blood in the body. Supposedly, if he had not passed over the permeations in certain areas of the heart he would have mad the connection. Galen also describes the production of urine by the kidney, which he demonstrated by squeezing and constricting certain organs in animals. Furthermore, Galen described the purpose of nerves to move parts of the body. He demonstrated this by cutting nerves in animals and recording the immobilization of that muscle group after the incision. Galen also described each system in the body to have a faculty behind it. In the heart it was that faculty that made it palpitate. For the nutrients it is the change of food to blood by the veins. The other theories concerned the natural, which effects and instigates the faculties. His work concerns not only these faulties but also the effects of hot, dry, moist, and cold air by which Galen attributes much of the health explanations he makes. He also goes into depth about growth, nutrition of oneself, and the excrements produced as a result. Lastly although he realizes that the veins contain blood and not air, he is still convinced the vapors are abundant throughout the body. For example he contends that the kidney transforms vapors in the body to urine.
This quote not only shows of Burton's knowledge of Galen, but also of the fact that these scholars who have simply rephrased Galen's work and have added no new ideas. [Craig Szela]
Heraclitus
Heraclitus was a Presocratic philosopher who lived in Ephesus, Greece around BCE. 535-475. Heraclitus is one of the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece until Socrates and Plato. Little is known about his life, except that he was an Ephesian noble who had contempt for the masses and all of his philosophical predecessors. He renounced his inherited regal privileges, withdrew from the aristocratic courts, and secluded himself in a country estate to give himself up to his studies. In his later years, Heraclitus wrote a philosophical treatise, which he deposited in the Temple of Artemis, mandating that it not be published till after his death. The Ephesians continued to idolize him and engrave his image on their coins. Heraclitus, like Parmenides, proposed a model of nature and the universe, which created the foundation for all other theories on physics and metaphysics. His ideas that the universe is in constant change and that there is an underlying order or reason to this change-the Logos-found the fundamental European worldview. However, very little of his writing remains, except for what has been merely passed down in fragments by other Greek writers. These passages are quoted out of Heraclitus' great treatise "On Nature" (peri phuseos), and the oldest testament of Greek prose. They are incredibly difficult to read because they are quoted out of context, and because Heraclitus developed an obscure writing style, with bold figurative language, awkward syntax, and weighty thoughts. For this style, he was referred to as Heraclitus "the Obscure" (skoteinos). From his gloomy life view, he is often also called the "Weeping Philosopher," as Democritus is known as "the Laughing Philosopher." Heraclitus sought for a common principle underlying the various forms of matter, and he believed all things shared an underlying identity as fire. He believed that through opposing forces of strife and harmony, many things developed, all of which were constantly changing. "This cosmos, the same for all, was not made by gods or men, but always was and is and ever shall be ever-living fire, igniting in measures and extinguishing in measures." (Quoted by Harrison, 1996) Heraclitus ascribes to God the same characteristics that he ascribes to fire, although he mocked conventional religion. He writes: "All things are filled with souls and spirits." and "All human laws are nourished by the one divine; for it is as powerful as it wishes, and it suffices for all, and it prevails." (Quoted by Harrison, 1996) [Haley Olinger]
Hic Mulier, Haec Vir Contesting Cultural Norms: Cross-Dressing
Hippocrates (460-377 BC)? Hippocrates is also reputed to have written the Hippocratic Oath and laws by which Physicians should abide. It involves swearing by Appollo, the physician, and all the other gods that they will do their best. It also says one must pass on their knowledge to their sons and treat their teachers as parents. Among other warnings it involves swearing not to being a accessory to abortion. Hippocrates thought that many of the current physicians were frauds and very unscientific. His laws, Oath, and instructions were in an effort to inspire better practicing of medicine. [Craig Szela]
Hippolytus and Phaedra Burton refers to Hippolytus and Phaedra in the section concerning symptoms of love in Anatomy of Melancholy:
The story of Hippolytus and Phaedra is one of tragedy. Theseus bore a
son, Hippolytus, with his first wife Hippolyte. After her death, he married
a goddess named Phaedra. Hippolytus' good looks and charm attracted the
admirations of Aphrodite and in turn his own stepmother. But Hippolytus
was devoted to Artemis, the virgin hunt goddess. He promised to retain his
virginity for his love, Artemis. This devotion angered Aphrodite who vowed
to destroy Hippolytus. In doing this, Phaedra fell in love with her stepson
Hippolytus. The unrequited love brought Phaedra to suicide while Theseus
disowned Hippolytus and sent him into exile for the supposed incestuous
relations and death of his wife. On his journey to exile, Hippolytus was
killed by the works of Poseidon which had been ordered by Theseus. In this
myth, love brought upon the demise of an entire family. The devotion and
power of love brought upon death instead of happiness. Burton writes of
this myth as a reminder of loves influence and the great perils that accompany
this passion. [Beth Hatem] Horace
Horace was born Quintus Horatius Flaccus on the 8th of December 65 BC in the Roman military colony of Venusia in southeastern Italy. Horace's father, a former slave, worked as an auctioneer's assistant. Horace received an excellent education. As a youth he attended Orbilius' School in Rome. When Horace was around the age of nineteen he attended the academy in Athens. After the assassination of Julius Caesar, Horace left the academy to join Brutus' army and attained the rank of Tribunus militum (senior legionary officer). Horace fled back to Italy after Octavian's forces defeated the legions of Brutus and Cassius. He received a pardon from the triumvirate and obtained the post of one of the 36 clerks of the treasury (scribae quaestorii). While a clerk of the treasury, Horace worked on Book I of the Satires, published in 35 or 36 BC. Horace began to show his work to potential patrons. Poets Vergil and Varius introduced Horace to Gaius Maecenas, a wealthy political adviser of Augustus (formerly known as Octavian). Maecenas gave Horace friendship and monetary support. Horace resided in a comfortable house near his farm in the Sabine hills. Whether or not it was a gift from Maecenas is still a point of contention amongst scholars. Horace accumulated enough wealth to concentrate fully upon writing. He published the Epodes and a second book of Satires in 29 or 30 BC. The first three books of Odes were published in 23 BC and contained 88 short poems. The forth book of Odes, containing 15 poems, was finished in 13 BC. Horace began his Epistles in 19 or 20 BC. In 17 BC Horace composed the Secular Hymn for Augustus. Despite the fact that he was once a member of Brutus' army, Horace became a close friend of Augustus. Augustus requested that Horace become his private secretary but Horace declined, claiming bad health. Horace died at 56 years of age on 27 November 8 BC. [Kyle Viani]
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The concept of an army of lovers comes from
ancient Greece where Plato originally proposed the idea and such an army
was created in Thebes in the 4th century BC. There are Greek poems by Alcaeus,
Anacreon, and Pindar that are about love between men. Homer's Iliad includes
the story of Achilles readiness to avenge the death of Patroclus. This addresses
the "tradition of love that inspires valour in battle." Plato
wrote about this idea that love makes men fight harder in war. Phaedrus
begins Plato's symposium with the speech about the power of love and its
effect in war. (See picture.)
Born: 980 A.D., Bukhara, Central Asia (now Uzbekistan)
Democritus was a philosopher, anatomist, physicist and
astrologer, among many other things. He was a melancholy man by nature
and given to solitariness and meditation.
Epilepsy, i.e. Falling Sickness, is a neurological disorder
expressed by occasional seizures. Among the several types of seizures the
most familiar and certainly the most dramatic is grand mal-an episode when
the brain swamped with extra electrical energy loses control over the body
and the victim falls onto the ground in convulsions. This is accompanied
by a sudden cry caused by the air rushing out of her lungs and shallow breathing
that may briefly stop, among other none the more appealing features. After
returning to consciousness, the person might feel confused and exhausted
and be in need of some rest. Seizures are very seldom a cause of death,
usually through accidents, loss of breathing, or heart attack, as epilepsy
in itself is not fatal. No one is certain about the causes of epilepsy,
other than it seems to develop predominantly in childhood. Any interference
with the workings of the brain, such as head trauma, lead poisoning, genetic
conditions, and development of the brain in fetus might often cause it,
besides some diseases and brain tumors. 
One of his most famous works is Historiae Animalium
(1551-87), a five-volume work that catalogues all species of animals found
in Europe. Accompanying the descriptions of the animals are detailed wood-cut
illustrations of the animals. Included in the catalogue were also some
misconceptions of the time such as including the unicorn as an existing
animal. The work was accessible to both scholars and the general public.
Gesner died before the fifth volume was completed, but it was published
after his death. This first attempt to catalogue, describe and illustrate
all of the animals caused Gesner to be known as the founder of modern zoology.
Along with animals Gesner also studied plant-life and botany and wrote
similar works of description.
Galen
was one of the most distinguished physicians of his time. His knowledge
of medicine and ability to perform influential anatomical experimentation
on animals led even the emperor to notice him. Emperor Marcus Aurelius appointed
Galen to be physician to his son, Lucius Aurelius Commodus in the year 169.
He was born in Pergamum located in northwest Asia Minor (now Turkey). As
a teenager, he became an attendant to the god Asclepius, a very prestigious
position in the culture's therapeutic center. From this he was associated
with many important people such as senators and magistrates. His father,
Nicon, was an architect who was very interested in mathematics and was among
the nobility of Pergamum. He had decided to have Galen study Architecture,
but in a dream one night he was told to let his son study medicine. From
then on because of his father's connections, Galen studied beside some of
the top physicians of the times. At the age of 19 Galen's father died and
left him very rich. He decided to continue his studies, but also to travel
a lot. He eventually decided that Pergamum was to small a place for a man
of his aspirations and moved to Rome to continue his study. The Emperor,
at the height of the Roman Empire, then recognized him. The plague broke
out and he was able to continue his studying through the Emperor and aside
from a few trips to study some rare diseases he spent the rest of his life
in Rome studying and writing. He wrote some twenty volumes in Greek aside
from some works written in Arabic and Medieval Latin. His works concisely
summarized all previous thoughts on medicine and contained many of his own
ideas and results. The influence of his work can be seen by the length of
time that it lasted to be referred to by Physicians as a medical reference.
Even as late as 1833 it was being used to explain and evaluate medical states.
This not only attributes to Galen's success but also distinguishes any reason
for Burton being thought of as antiquated even if he did refer to text written
in the 2nd century.
Hippocrates most likely born on the island of Kos, Greece
where he eventually settled down to practice medicine and record his observations.
During his time period most diseases were attributed to punishment from
a higher being or infiltration of the body by evil spirits. He was one of
the first physicians of any notoriety to have challenged the conception
that diseases were not just divine punishments. He was acclaimed as "The
Great Hippocrates, Father of Medicine." He studied and had great knowledge
of Chemistry, Biology, and Physics. The Hippocratic Collection contains
some of the earliest medical works. However, he is suspected of having written
only six of the seventy works. Other doctors affiliated with the Kos School
of Medicine wrote the rest. The other authors did, however follow the same
practices and observation techniques that Hippocrates began.